Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Key Parameters, Recent Advances, Challenges and Applications

Energy storage and conversion technologies depending upon sustainable energy sources have gained much attention due to continuous increasing demand of energy for social and economic growth. Electrochemical energy storage (EES) technologies, especially secondary batteries and electrochemical capacitors (ECs), are considered as potential technologies which have been successfully utilized in electronic devices, immobilized storage gadgets, and pure and hybrid electrical vehicles effectively due to their features, like remarkable energy and power density, excellent round-trip ability, long life cycle, cheap, and environment friendly. Among the developed batteries, Li-ion batteries are widely used at a large scale. Among secondary batteries, Li-ion, lithium-sulfur, and sodium-ion batteries have gained much attention of researchers across the globe and could deliver large-scale electric energy in the future. This chapter describes a short introduction to energy storage mechanisms and different types of EES devices.

The advancements in energy storage hold great significance in light of the escalating global energy demand and the rapid proliferation of rechargeable vehicles and portable automated devices. Oil-intensive transportation has bad effect on the quality of life, thus presenting the necessity of the clean energy sources like solar and wind energy. Sulfur-based batteries serve as the promising alternative for the traditional lithium-ion batteries, as the Li-ion batteries offer several limitations. It also examines the advantages of sulfur-based batteries over lithium-ion batteries and their potential to meet the energy requirements of larger rechargeable vehicles. Additionally, it addresses the challenges and solutions for the development of the sulfur-based batteries for the innovative large-scale energy storage system. Overall, this chapter serves as a comprehensive introduction to the field of lithium-sulfur batteries, providing a solid foundation for further exploration of their potential in energy storage applications.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are promising high-energy-density energy storage systems. It is generally agreed that shuttle of the polysulfides in a functional battery is slowed by intense anchoring of the intermediates. However, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding the chemistry involved. Here, using advanced quantum chemical computations, we examine the Li bond chemistry in Li-S batteries with concept of hydrogen bond. The Li bond, a strong dipole-dipole connection between Li-S cathode materials and Li polysulfides, is facilitated by electron-rich donors like pyridinic nitrogen (pN), and is further strengthened by the conjugative and inductive effect of scaffold materials having π-electrons like graphene. This research elucidates the importance of Li bond chemistry in Li-S cells and provides a comprehensive knowledge, which is helpful for rational choice of cathode materials and implementation of Li-S batteries in the practical applications.

Because of sulfur’s natural insulation, substantial volume expansion, shuttling of the soluble polysulfides, and, most critically, slow conversion of polysulfide intermediates, Li-S battery performance is still far from theoretical prediction. The electrochemical performance of Li-S batteries (e.g., lifespan, rate capability, cyclability, etc.) can be influenced by manipulating the architectures and functions of polymer materials; hence, they play an essential role in solving these problems. In this chapter a brief introduction of Li-S battery followed by its fundamental electrochemistry and challenges has been given. The mechanisms of operation of the Li-S batteries are then considered, with special emphasis on the uses of several polymers in all components.

Since the creation of their first prototype in the 1960s, lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have been anticipated to be a viable high-energy-density secondary battery system. By addressing the issues at the lab-level model systems, significant progress has been made over the past 10 years in promoting the performance of Li-S batteries. Li-S battery applications are receiving more attention; however, the bottleneck is being caused by brand-new difficulties at realistic cell sizes. In this review, we first introduce the lithium-sulfur batteries and describe their principle. Then, we elaborate all the recent advances and finally concluded along with future research objectives.

Groundbreaking researches in the field of electrochemistry have increased the longevity and electric power density of lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries in recent decades. Moreover, these batteries have been recognized as a viable alternative to the Li-ion battery and are expected to play a key part in high-energy-density electrochemical storage systems owing to its low cost, plentiful resources, environmental friendliness, and high energy density. In this chapter, particular focus is paid on research and developments pertaining to various issues in Li-S batteries such as sulfur cathode, separator, electrolyte, and Li anode. Finally, a future perspective on the development of high-performance Li-S batteries is discussed.

The era of using fossil fuels as the main source of energy has been fading in our modern society. The advancement of several energy harvesting, converting, and storage technologies lessens the negative effects of human activity on the environment while also improving all facets of our life. Advanced large-scale energy storage technologies are essential for the efficient use of renewable resources and the maintenance of the future smart grid’s dependability. For large-scale applications, there are typically two types of energy storage technologies: physical energy storage systems (such as pump hydro, compressed air, and flywheels) and electrochemical devices (i.e., rechargeable batteries). Rechargeable batteries stand out among them, thanks to their superior energy conversion efficiency, viability for distributed locations, and ease of maintenance.

As fossil fuels are burned more and more for energy, the world’s environmental problems get worsen. Therefore, the research and development of renewable, clean energy sources is an urgent priority. Since 2009, there has been a surge in interest in studying the sulphur cathode used in lithium sulphur batteries (LSBs) due to high theoretical capacity and likely low manufacturing cost. However, electrical isolation of S and Li₂S, the strong shuttle effect of lithium polysulphides, and the major volume change from S to Li₂S upon lithiation are the key issues, which prompted scientists and engineers to work tirelessly for finding scientific and technological solutions. We have aimed to provide an all-encompassing fresh insight into the sulphur cathode’s future direction, specifically, the carbon architecture design of the sulphur host, advanced characterization techniques for in-depth mechanism understanding, and full-cell evaluation for a truly viable LSB. Volumetric expansion during charging and discharging also has a negative impact on LSB electrochemical performance, including rate performance, cycle life, and coulombic efficiency. Consequently, different sulphur composites containing carbon materials, metallic oxides, and conductive polymers, and different composite cathode materials recently developed for application to LSBs were discussed. Hence, it’s very important to learn more about sulphur cathode to get better understandings of the material chemistries, interfaces, and engineering of LSBs, which will open up a wealth of new possibilities for battery scientists.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries fascinated the excessive intension of research community due to higher energy density, cost-effective, and greater efficiency as compared to lithium-ion batteries. Though under the huge benefits and countless achievements, there are some limitations such as rapid capacity declining and low utilization with sulfur cathode because of shuttle effect and uncontrollable high polysulfide deposition which restricted to practical usage of such effective energy storage device. Under such circumstances, we discussed nanomaterial-based sulfur cathode composites in this chapter specifically which provide great support in better electrochemical pathways. However, design/fabrication of different carbon-sulfur or other polymer-sulfur composite cathodes have been discussed with addressed shuttle effect and solution of this problem by these composites. Furthermore, porous, hollow/core-shell, nanosheets/nanorods and hierarchical nanomaterials have also been discussed with their size effects on Li⁺/electron transfer and their morphological impact on electrochemical performance as well. We summarized the different porous carbon hosts with their steady incorporation ways of carbon-sulfur cathodes. At the end, we summarized sufficient regarding challenges with sulfur cathode which restricted the applications in electronic field at commercial level. Additionally, our discussion concluded with their developing trend in the future about porous nanomaterial-based sulfur composite of sulfur cathode.

Recently, rechargeable lithium-sulphur has gained remarkable attention because of its low cost and specific energy. For different applications like grid-level energy storage, portable electronics, and electric vehicles, they are auspicious candidates. But, the main technical issues are low power capability and poor cycle life. To solve these problems, various nanostructured sulphur cathodes have designed, as they give greater trapping of soluble polysulfide, better resistance to pulverization, and an accelerated reaction kinetics. We will study the designs of nanostructured sulphur cathodes and their mechanism behind their operation.

The generation and storage of clean energy are important to access the global development, due to the depletion of the fossil fuels and high prices of oil and the need for sustainable social development. This chapter focuses on the one of the solutions for the storage of the energy in the form of lithium-based batteries. Li-ion batteries are prone to the dendritic growth thus effecting the efficiency of the batteries; thus, the Li-ion insertion method is discussed in detail that has revolutionized lithium-ion battery systems. The exceptional characteristics of lithium metal, including its lightweight nature and high power-to-weight ratio, position Li-ion batteries as a robust contender. It discusses the widespread use of the Li-ion batteries in mobile phones, electric cars, computers, and drones, thanks to research efforts over the last two decades. This chapter serves as a comprehensive resource for understanding the significance of Li anode and its implications for the future of energy storage.

In light of rising global resource consumption and the looming environmental crises, renewable energy sources are increasingly being explored in industries, transportations, and households. Novel energy materials and related high-energy-density storage technologies have received a lot of attention. Lithium (Li) metal is the most promising anode for implementing a high-performance energy storage system due to its elevated theoretical capacity. Uncontrollable dendrite formation, high volume change, and unstable solid electrolyte interface layer raise a slew of problems (low Coulombic efficiency, serious safety hazard, short lifetime, and so on) that make practical use of Li-metal anodes a pipe dream. To address these issues, researchers have focused their efforts on accommodating and guiding Li deposition as well as stabilizing the interface using a variety of carbon materials, which have proven to be highly effective due to their wide variety and excellent tunability of the structure–property relationship. This chapter primarily provides an overview of the crucial function of carbon-based hosts in increasing the overall performance of Li-metal anodes. The basic failure process of lithium metal anodes is described using linked mainstream models. The benefits and techniques for dealing with the accompanying issues of carbon-based hosts are discussed in general. The function, limitations, and current research advances of essential carbon-based host materials for Li-metal anodes are discussed. Finally, a conclusion is offered, as well as a future perspective for carbon-based host research is given. This chapter aims to summarize current achievements in carbon-based materials hosts and to serve as a guide for future development of carbon-based hosts for improved Li-metal anodes.

The high-energy battery systems are getting an indispensable significance in accordance to the exponentially growing needs of electronic appliances and electromotive vehicles, having excellent cycle stability. The lithium sulfur battery systems can be the best substitutes for future storage electromotive schemes than their rivals such as lithium-ion battery systems due to the high energy density and excellent life cycle. Hence keeping in view, the growing global demands of economically sustainability and motivations toward product recycling, there is strong need to develop and evaluate the new technologies for digging out the sustainable recycling potential. In this context, new recycling techniques should be focused on the recovery of precious metals along with valuable construction materials for achieving a decent vale of recycling efficiency (RE). The current chapter is planned with an aim to explain the thermal and hydrometallurgical processes in a safer environment for achieving the maximum recycling efficiency of lithium sulfur battery systems. In addition to that, designing of recycling process for lithium sulfur battery systems has also been described and explained. The multiple steps-based process including sorting, discharging, vacuum distillation, mechanical separation, and hydro-treatment was selected for the recovery of elements in accordance to the chemical composition of lithium sulfur battery systems. Both thermal and mechanical steps were employed for the separation of black powder, having all the material resources, recovered from metal castings. Various basic and acidic leaching solutions were trialed for evaluation of their performances, followed by addition of additives for precipitation and adjusting the pH of aqueous solution-based black mass powder. Finally, chemical analysis was conducted for having the evaluation in terms of terms of yield and purity to recover the maximum amount of lithium sulfur battery fractions including lithium, sulfur, carbon, and aluminum.

The growing acceptance of electric vehicles across the globe is the main factor driving the trend toward mobile electrification, which has resulted in an unparalleled increase in the demand for lithium-ion batteries. Consequently, it is now more important than ever to recycle batteries. The lithium-sulfur (Li-S) battery is being explored as a potential replacement for the present lithium-ion battery. It releases energy by combining lithium metal with highly plentiful sulfur. The Li-S battery can obtain a high theoretical specific capacity of 1675 mAh/g and specific energy of 2600 Wh/kg due to the sulfur cathode’s lightweight and multi-electron reaction. The “shuttle effect” of lithium polysulfides, significant volume changes, weak conductivity of sulfur and its solid-state derivatives, and the self-discharge phenomenon, on the other hand, restrict its practical utilization. The “shuttle effect” is acknowledged as the most significant issue influencing electrochemical performance out of all of these. Some of these techniques have shown early promise, but more work is required to reach a high enough performance level so that lithium metal may be employed in commercial Li-S cells. In this chapter, we examine the advantages and disadvantages of numerous suggested approaches to these problems, keeping in mind the constant objective of outperforming traditional Li-ion energy densities.