The Climate-Health-Sustainability Nexus

The Industrial Revolution marked a significant shift in human civilization, leading to exploiting natural resources during colonisation and developing an anthropocentric eco-philosophy in the West. In response, indigenous eco-philosophies have engaged in a contestation with the Western knowledge system, prompting a reflective reconsideration within the latter. Earlier in the Western knowledge system, Eunice Foote, a pioneering female scientist, first identified that increased concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere could lead to a greenhouse effect, warming the Earth’s surface and was later reinforced by John Tyndall and Svante Arrhenius. In the late 1950s, Charles David Keeling’s research on atmospheric CO₂ levels provided concrete evidence of human influence on the environment. The 1960s and 1970s saw the emergence of environmentalism, spurred by influential literature such as Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring.” The scientific research on climate change intensified in the 1980s and 1990s following the establishment of the IPCC. In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development released its landmark report titled “Our Common Future.” This report introduced the concept of sustainability. The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in the adoption of Agenda 21. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 to set emission reduction targets, but its effectiveness faced challenges. Subsequent Earth summits continued promoting sustainability. In 2015, the UN adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The Paris Agreement, also established in 2015, set targets to combat climate change by limiting global temperature rise. Climate change has catalysed individual activism and collective environmentalism that supported the emergence of sustainability as a guiding framework for addressing environmental, social, and economic challenges. Now, in light of the disproportionate effects on marginalised communities, particularly in the Global South, Critical Sustainability is evolving to prioritise equitable resource distribution and foster inclusive decision-making.

In recent years, developing countries have been grappling with two significant environmental challenges—air pollution and increasing temperature. The impact of these issues on health and the economy has been extensively studied, leading to a growing body of literature highlighting their individual consequences. Understanding the synergistic effect of air pollution and increasing temperature on human well-being is a new topic of research that has received little attention in developing nations. This chapter aims to address this gap in knowledge by thoroughly examining the existing literature to understand the combined influence of these environmental stressors and their implications for global health and the economy. We look into the trends of global exposure to air pollution and temperature and explore the pathophysiological pathways through which air pollution and increasing temperature affect human health. Our findings point to a severe lack of evidence on the synergistic impact of the two on human health in India. In the face of increasing climate vulnerability, the Indian economy is exposed to large degrees of risk through direct and indirect costs. It is crucial that the interplay between air pollution and heat be studied in depth. By dissecting these pathways, policymakers and healthcare professionals can develop more targeted strategies to mitigate the combined impacts of both on public health. Finally, we focus on the health and economic co- benefits of implementing interventions to reduce air pollution and combat heat waves. By addressing these challenges in tandem, there is an opportunity to achieve greater overall benefits for both human well-being and economic prosperity. Through a deeper understanding of these interconnected challenges, we can strive for a healthier and more sustainable future for all, especially for those most vulnerable to poor environmental quality.

The agricultural system for the production of food grains has led to deforestation, pollution, and overexploitation of natural resources. As a result, agriculture is both a cause as well as a victim of climate change. Agricultural ecosystems are highly sensitive to climate-change, so it is important to investigate the likely impact of climate change on various sectors within the ecosystems to be able to comprehensively understand the effects of climate change. Global food security has become one of the main priorities for sustainable development. It is being anticipated that a 50–70% increase in food production will be required by 2050 to feed an additional two billion people. This is especially crucial for developing countries, which are predominated by small-holder farmers. It has been suggested that sustainable interventions at each step of the goods and services (value chain) are necessary for an agricultural product to move from the farmer to the consumer. Agriculture value chains are affected by gender dynamics and socio-cultural norms and practices which decide the allocation of resources, benefits, and access to growth opportunities. Women are producers of 60–70% of food in developing nations and represent a predominant proportion of the labor force worldwide. However, despite being the major contributors to agriculture, they face gender disparities in terms of allocation of resources and share in profits. Women have restricted access to resources and information, less control over assets, and heavier workloads, thereby constraining their capacity to engage with and operate within the higher nodes of the value chain. In order to achieve a high level of penetrance of sustainable agricultural technologies like good quality seeds, pre-sowing seed treatments, advanced agronomic practices etc. an active involvement of women farmers can act as a key driver. In this chapter, literature on the impact of climate change on agriculture has been reviewed with a special reference to the role of women farmers in the adoption of advanced climate-smart agricultural practices.

The profound impact of climate change has exposed the systemic vulnerabilities of food systems and ensuing impact on nutrition and health and well-being of the population. Food Systems (FS) are not just adversely impacted by climate change but are also a major contributor to it, yet in the pathways to build climate resilience, food systems feature last. This paper explores the multifaceted impact of climate change on all dimensions of food i.e. availability, accessibility, affordability and absorption and how it’s affects are passed down to the future generations. It further discusses the commonly used conceptual frameworks for food systems and highlights the similarities, differences, strengths and weaknesses of each of the frameworks from the view of climate-food-health nexus. In the absence of a conceptual framework that adopts a climate lens to examine the food system, we are ill-equipped to discern plausible causes of the food system failure and formulate solutions that carefully leverage synergies and manage the trade-offs.

One of the most challenging issues faced by developed and developing nations is climate change. Climate change is responsible for food production changes in quality and quantity. The impact of climate change on global food systems, nutrition, and health outcomes is significant. This chapter investigates the complex links between climate change and its effects on food security and public health. As global temperatures rise and extreme weather events become more frequent, food systems’ susceptibility and effects on nutrition and health become increasingly evident. Food system disruptions affect nutrition and health, causing a cascade of effects. Malnutrition—inadequate intake and excessive consumption—can be exacerbated by a lack of nutritious foods. In the face of climate change, food systems must be strengthened by technologies and several policies to ensure sustainable, healthy, and equitable food production and consumption. Promoting climate-resilient agricultural practices, sustainable food production, and equitable access to nutrient-rich foods are crucial for enhancing food security and nutrition in a changing climate. Moreover, collaboration between the public health, agricultural, and environmental sectors is essential for developing adaptive strategies that protect against climate-related challenges.

Agriculture in Palestine is threatened by climate change (CC). The threat magnifies under restrictions imposed by the Israeli occupation on access to agricultural water and land. This study aims to assess CC impacts on agricultural activities, livelihood, food security, and health of Palestinian farmers, herders, and household consumers; and investigate adaptation strategies they practice under political restrictions. The study adopts the qualitative case study research design. Data was collected in 2021 through online in-depth interviews with 24 participants (12 farmers and herders, 12 consumers) including 8 women, from Yatta and As Samoa towns in Hebron governorate, in time of COVID-19 pandemic that hindered face-to-face interviews. Data was analyzed using ‘Thematic Analysis’. Results show that reduced duration of planting seasons, decline in forage and grazing fields, shortage of drinking water for livestock, and reduced working hours on farm are major impacts of CC (mainly droughts). These impacts adversely influence the livelihood, food security, and health of farmers, herders, and consumers, such as income loss from marketing activities; reduced consumption of food; and depression. As adaptation measures, farmers use water tanks to store irrigation water for dry seasons; and apply fertilizers and mulch to improve yields. Herders make hay and practice mob grazing to supplement and preserve rangelands for livestock feeds. They engage in occupations aside agriculture to improve their livelihood and store food in boom seasons to secure food. Overall, these measures proved to improve their mental health. Nevertheless, there is still an urgent need to establish irrigation systems in non-restricted regions; subsidize prices of purchased water; and finance inputs for cultivating resistant crops. This study is among few Palestinian studies, if not the only one, examining CC impacts resulting from different climatic variation conditions, including prolonged dry season, extreme weather conditions (heat, drought, and cold), and excessive precipitation, in a single study. It also addresses holistically a wide spectrum of different CC impacts influencing agricultural activities, livelihood, food security, and (mental) health of three target groups, in a one case study.

Biodiversity loss, driven by human activities, has emerged as a global concern with far-reaching implications for ecosystems, economies, and public health. It is essential for the functioning of biotopes and the provision of ecosystem services which are critical for human survival and thriving. Ecosystem services encompass many benefits that ecosystems provide to humanity. Loss of biological diversity, including pollinators, can hinder crop yields, resulting in reduced nutritional diversity in diets. Furthermore, it disrupts the ability of ecosystems to regulate the climate. Biodiversity-rich ecosystems tend to have a dampening effect on disease transmission, particularly zoonotic diseases that originate in wildlife. To promote sustainable health in the face of its loss, a multifaceted approach is essential. Conservation efforts aimed at preserving the diversity of living organisms and ecosystem services are crucial steps in safeguarding human health. Additionally, policy interventions that integrate ecological and health considerations can help mitigate the loss of biological diversity. Finally, it should be noted that ecological services and, by extension, human health are seriously threatened by biodiversity loss. Recognizing the interdependence of these factors is essential for addressing the complex challenges posed by them and for promoting sustainable health on a global scale.

Small-scale fisheries, while often marginalized in policy debates, are seen as a critical component of economic development, contributing to livelihoods, food security, and poverty alleviation. This paper critically examines the impact of the recent fisheries policy in Kashmir, which has promoted aquaculture as a solution to boost fish production. Drawing upon government statistics and interviews, the paper argues that the promotion of aquaculture has subsided native fisheries protection and that small-scale fishers are facing marginalization due to a combination of factors, including enclosures, privatization, and man-made disasters. The findings suggest that small-scale fisheries are facing marginalization due to adverse policies and are getting more vulnerable due to rising climate change and habitat destruction. In particular, the enclosure and the barriers to accessing fishing grounds are adversely impacting the livelihood of fishing communities. Finally, I argue for sustainable fisheries policies that take into consideration resource access and the interests of fishermen.

The greatest threat to human health that exists today is climate change. Ecosystems, societies and biodiversity are seriously at risk from the long term effects due to change in climate, primarily brought on by human activities. Rising temperatures increase evaporation, which causes drought and decreases water availability for ecosystems, drinking water supplies and agriculture. Changed precipitation patterns exacerbate floods, storms and sea levels, contaminating the water supply and harming infrastructure. The effects of rapidly changing climate on water resources must be minimised through sustainable water management techniques, conservation initiatives and International initiatives. The effects of climate change on the long run have been the focus of research because stable weather significantly influences agricultural productivity. Due to agriculture's reliance on temperature and rainfall, climate change threatens world food security. Rising temperature results in lower productivity and also promotes the growth of weeds and pests, changes precipitation patterns, which will result in more crop failures and production declines. This work summarises the outcome of climate change on crop and livestock yields, water resources and the economy.

In Palestine, climate change (CC), mainly frequent droughts, adversely impacts crop production and water availability for agriculture. Palestine National Adaptation Plan of CC considers the agriculture sector highly vulnerable to CC. The national CC Adaptation Strategy and Programme of Action suggests reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) for irrigated agriculture, also called agricultural wastewater reuse (WWR), as one of No-Regrets Priority Adaptation Measure. Agricultural WWR, however, necessitates shifting to cropping patterns that comply with the Palestinian WWR standards and robustify farmers’ adaptation to CC while enhancing their livelihood. This study targets an agricultural WWR pilot project in the meadow of Ben Amer (MBA) in Jenin, Palestine. It aims to (i) characterize current crop patterns in the study area; (ii) identify and assess, in the view of farmers, crops that are economically most profitable and agriculturally suitable for WWR in MBA; and (iii) develop a decision-making model for crop selection for WWR. Data was collected in 2021 using four qualitative and quantitative methods: scoping interviews, participatory focus group discussions (FGDs), structured questionnaire, and semi-structured on-farm observations. Twelve agriculture experts, researchers, and extension service providers were targeted to set selection criteria of ‘profitable’ and ‘suitable’ crops for WWR, and thirty farmers participated to express perceptions and rank crops according to the set criteria. Eleven types of fruit trees and fodders were ranked including almonds with GF rootstock, table olive, kiwi, mango, apple, guava, grapes, pears, and palm, in addition to Alfa Alfa and Panicum. Alfa Alfa and Panicum are found to be the most agriculturally suitable (AS) and economically profitable (EP) crops if irrigated with TWW in MBA, followed by guava, table olive, and grapes, with medium AS and EP (ASEP) levels.

This chapter delves into the vital intersection of urbanization, sustainability, and public health, acknowledging the unprecedented growth of cities. It underscores the pressing need for sustainable urban environments that harmonize human necessities, ecological integrity, and overall well-being. To address the multifaceted challenges confronted by urban societies, this chapter advocates for the respectful integration of Indigenous knowledge systems into mainstream urban planning. It explores the potential for collaboration, presenting philosophies and practices that can be implemented in urban areas to safeguard public health, prevent environmental degradation, and enhance liveability. This chapter explores how indigenous knowledge can alleviate the health consequences of pollution, enhance overall liveability, and showcases the positive outcome of collaboration. It sheds light on the need for mainstream urban planning to be receptive to indigenous knowledge. Case studies are utilized to illustrate how indigenous knowledge can fill critical gaps in urban planning, such as the promotion of biodiversity and ecological balance. By harnessing the wisdom of Indigenous communities, this chapter emphasizes the potential for the development of holistic sustainable cities that prioritize environmental preservation, public health, and overall quality of life. It presents the scope of indigenous knowledge in development of sustainable cities that are conducive to increased well-being. It underscores the symbiotic relationship between contemporary planning principles and Indigenous knowledge, culminating in a path towards balanced and comprehensive sustainable urban development. Collaborative research and engagement with Indigenous communities are central to the successful integration of this knowledge, fostering sustainable cities that promote health and livability.

Urban climate refers to the local climate effects resulting from planning decisions made at various scales, from streets and neighbourhoods to entire cities. These decisions can have planned or unintended consequences that contribute to global climate change, impacting people, energy usage, the built environment, and cities. Despite being a relatively new field of study, urban climate understanding has progressed significantly, enabling it to inform design and planning decisions. One critical aspect of urban climate is the heat absorption by cities, which elevates local air temperatures. Factors such as building layout, materials, roadways, and pollution contribute to the unique urban stamp on the local climate. Mapping heat susceptibility and enhancing heat resilience are vital steps in understanding and tackling the urban climate issue. As urban spaces continue to expand or fill up, it is crucial to be aware of the complexities that arise and incorporate appropriate strategies to effectively address the unusual urban climate. By doing so, we can create sustainable and climate-resilient urban environments that contribute to a more environmentally friendly and healthier future. To address urban climate challenges, several mitigation strategies are essential. Careful city layout design, incorporating more vegetation, optimizing building materials and colours, and promoting human-nature interactions are crucial. A scientific approach is necessary to identify and implement the most effective mitigation measures.

Digital health innovations are pivotal in addressing climate change, public health, and sustainability challenges. These technologies can significantly improve global health and promote environmental sustainability when combined with climate-conscious methods. This chapter delves into how digital health aids climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. Tools like mobile apps, wearables, and telemedicine reduce carbon emissions by limiting in-person visits. Access to digital health information becomes catalytic in healthcare delivery. Emphasizing the impact of climate change on health, climate literacy, disease tracking, and early warning systems are well-informed with the help of digital tools. Telehealth and digital education provide underserved communities essential health access (Brown et al., Journal of Global Health Equity 5:34–46, 2022; Katz et al., Journal of Environmental Health Sciences 14:201–216, 2023). While ICT usage in health information has grown, accuracy remains crucial, given misinformation risks. ICT has, however, reshaped healthcare delivery (Hesse et al., Archives of Internal Medicine 165:2618, 2005; Wadhwa, ICT interventions for improved health service quality and delivery in India: A literature review, 2019). Merging digital health and sustainability can reduce healthcare’s environmental footprint (Barrett et al., Journal of Sustainable Development 6:112–125, 2019) and drive sustainable behaviors through gamification (Boulos et al., Games for Health Journal 9:301–315, 2020). Conclusively, digital health holds immense promise in harmonizing climate-health-sustainability, urging stakeholders to embrace these advancements for a better future.

This chapter explores the interdependencies between renewable energy technologies (RETs) and their social and health implications in the abatement of climate change. Research shows that the production and deployment of RETs impacts greatly on biodiversity which anchors the biopsychosocial health of their host communities. Hence, the prospect of an actors-led socio-technical system in the governance of innovative knowledge required to drive progress and resilience in the shift from fossil fuel-led energy consumption to renewables was explored through the lens of Multi-level Perspective (MLP). The MLP transition theory was used as a framing in the understanding of the socio-technical transformation brought on by the deployment of RETs and the role of actors as well as their agency within the RET innovation process.

The United Nations has laid down 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for protecting the planet and encourage prosperity and peace by 2030. In accord of these goals, and India being an emerging global leader is truly committed to achieve these SDGs. The whole biological system depends for their life on agriculture and a shift to sustainable cultivation practices could be a key driver for India to achieve SDGs by 2030. Agriculture being an anthropogenic activity has globally led to pollution, deforestation and overexploitation of natural resources. Hence the development of ‘climate smart’ crops which yield higher per unit resource invested has become a critical factor for adoption of SDGs, especially, SDG 2, which targets ‘zero hunger’. Although, conventional methods of plant breeding have been able to increase crop yields to a great extent, but in recent times, the productivity of a number of leading economically important crops has reached to plateau. It is worthwhile to mention that most of the biotic and abiotic stress-tolerant genes reside in the wild genetic resources of the crop genera. Understanding the complex genetic interactions of the desirable genetic variations that lead to trait expression can provide direct insights for creating climate-resilient, high-yielding varieties. There is an urgent need to fast-track and fine-tune the crop breeding and selection process by adoption of present-day genomics assisted breeding (GAB) methods. In this chapter genomics-assisted acceleration of genetic gains for developing more efficient and climate resilient crop varieties have been discussed.

Financing sustainability is at the heart of international climate politics. Post signing of the Paris Agreement in 2015, the global South has laid out clear requirements for financial flows from the global North to address the climate crisis. There is a growing consensus that climate change and high carbon emissions are directly impacting human health. Transitioning to renewable energy in the country's energy mix is unanimously agreed as the most prudent mitigation strategy. Developing the new energy sources by developing distributed energy grids, also presents an opportunity to create more renewable energy stakeholders encompassing various income groups and sectors and promote inclusive green growth. The Paris Agreement mandates the countries of the Global North to transfer funds required for mitigation and adaptation in the Global South. However, the data indicates that recipients of climate finance and developers of new energy systems are predominantly large private corporations. The existing policies to finance small, distributed energy grids in the rural sector suffer majorly from financing gaps. This chapter adopts a case study approach to examine the case of social equity in financing renewable energy development in one of the states of India with the highest renewable energy potential. The finding indicates that the policies to finance the mini-distributed energy grids in rural India are bankable and safe assets that can lead to inclusive socio-economic growth and positively affect human health. This study also highlights the underlying gaps in financing that have resulted in the failure of the policy, thereby raising the issue of equity and inclusion in developing green energy systems. This study adds to the missing literature on social equity in developing green energy systems. It advocates amendment to an existing policy framework that can ensure domestic and international climate finance flows trickle down domestically in a just and fair manner.

A combination of climatic hazards such as violent winds, floods, erosion and drought favours chemical weathering degrades the fluorine-containing rocks to release fluoride that pollutes the groundwater of Mayo Tsanaga sub-basin in Cameroon, thereby causing a geogenic disease called dental fluorosis. The disease affects social interactions between men and women. Thus, this work addresses the problem of gender inequalities linked to dental fluorosis in Meri district in a context of climate change. Our approach was essentially qualitative, based on a documentary analysis of the relevant literature, and primary data from field observation and from 20 focus groups and 138 semi-structured interviews with communities (men, women) and traditional authorities in the cantons of Douvangar, Douroum, Ouazzang, Doulek, Tchéré, Méri and Godola. The main results obtained have demonstrated that dental fluorosis isn’t a hereditary or mystical disease, or one linked to hygiene, as communities used to think; its rather due to the use of drinking water from groundwater polluted by anomalous fluoride concentrations. Fluoride levels in groundwater vary according to climate and are elevated at high temperatures. The prejudice surrounding dental fluorosis, attributing it to women and young women, creates inequalities in gender relations in the communities of the Meri district. As a result, affected young women are stigmatized by young men: insulting remarks, mockery, ostracism, refusal of engagement or marriage. Moreover, they are unable to work in beauty-related professions such as journalism or modeling. In order to ensure that research contributes to Cameroon’s public health policy, GWP-Cameroon has undertaken initiatives to raise awareness and advocacy with the Ministry of Water and Energy to consider dental fluorosis as a public health problem.

At the core of climate change adaptation lie commons, essential for addressing and mitigating its impacts. Over the decades, literature on local resource governance has successfully dismantled the key argument of Garrett Hardin’s “Tragedy of the Commons” (Hardin in Science 162:1243–1248, 1968)—that resources which belong to ‘all’ end up belonging to ‘nobody’ and are left uncared for. In India too, historically, common property resources such as forests, water resources and grazing lands have been the mainstay of rural communities’ subsistence and livelihoods. Local institutions and collectives have been at the forefront of community-led governance and restoration activities pertaining to commons. Moreover, women from tribal and rural communities continue to interact with the commons in unparalleled ways, contributing to building community resilience in the face of climate change. As community leaders, women also facilitate collectivisation and mobilisation efforts for commons conservation. Yet, on one hand, the gender lens seems to have been integrated inadequately in global research on commons and on the other hand, in India, women’s meaningful participation in formal decision-making and leadership positions with respect to community management continues to be undermined. Against this background, using participatory research methods and key informant interviews with rural women, this qualitative study integrates voices from the grassroots across two districts of Rajasthan—Bhilwara and Udaipur—to examine the intersection of gender and commons in enhancing climate change resilience amongst rural communities. In doing so, it highlights how women’s involvement and leadership in commons management has benefitted collective efforts, while also recording the challenges faced by individual women leaders in overcoming structural issues related to caste, education and inequitable distribution of resources and opportunities. Thus, this study acts as a stepping stone in exploring the community’s imagination of climate change resilience through a gender lens, potentially contributing to policymaking for evidence-informed action towards commons governance.

This study examines the disruptive effects of climate-induced flooding on children’s rights to educational development, well-being and school attendance in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. It emphasizes the consequences of extensive flooding events on achieving SDG 4 and early childhood development in Bayelsa State. It utilizes the qualitative method as its framework for data collection and analysis. Secondary and primary data sources were scholarly publications, surveys, and interviews conducted with parents, pupils, and teachers from a specific set of public primary schools. The study focuses on three main questions: (i) the influence of flood events on children’s access to education, well-being, and school attendance; (ii) flood impacts on school's instructional resources and physical infrastructure; and (iii) the strategic response to flooding in an educational system that is sustainable, adaptive, and resilient. The results indicate that flood events caused by climate change have both immediate and long-term adverse effects on children’s educational development and well-being across various dimensions. Nonetheless, these impacts remain poorly documented, coupled with inadequate flood disaster risk reduction policies for schools in the State. The study emphasizes the need to build climate-resistant school facilities and incorporate climate change adaptation strategies into policies governing education in the State. The study concludes that sustainable and actionable policies should be considered to guarantee children's right to education and development during flood emergencies.